# Chapter 1. Models of Computation

### Introduction

In this chapter, we treat the concept of computation'' or algorithm. This concept is fundamental for our subject, but we will not define it formally. Rather, we consider it an intuitive notion, which is amenable to various kinds of formalization (and thus, investigation from a mathematical point of view).

An algorithm means a mathematical procedure serving for a computation or construction (the computation of some function), and which can be carried out mechanically, without thinking. This is not really a definition, but one of the purposes of this course is to demonstrate that a general agreement can be achieved on these matters. (This agreement is often formulated as Church's thesis.) A program in the Pascal (or any other) programming language is a good example of an algorithm specification. Since the mechanical'' nature of an algorithm is its most important feature, instead of the notion of algorithm, we will introduce various concepts of a {\em mathematical machine}.

Mathematical machines compute some output from some input. The input and output can be a word (finite sequence) over a fixed alphabet. Mathematical machines are very much like the real computers the reader knows but somewhat idealized. First, we omit some inessential features (e.g. hardware bugs). Second, and more important, is that they we remove limitations on the input size. As a consequence, we cannot work with a single finite machine; we must consider either an infinite family of finite computers of growing size, or a single (idealized) infinite computer (for example, we add an infinitely expandable memory). The latter approach has the advantage that it avoids the questions of what infinite families are allowed and how they are specified. One could think of this as building larger and larger finite machines for larger and larger tasks. Though the detailed structure of these machines are different, one usually has some degree of uniformity over all sizes. For theoretical purposes, it is desirable to pursue this uniformity to the limit and to design a computer model infinite in size, accomodating therefore tasks of arbitrary size.

Here is a typical problem we often solve on the computer: Given a list of names, sort them in alphabetical order. The input is a string consisting of names separated by commas: Bob, Charlie, Alice. The output is also a string: Alice, Bob, Charlie. The problem is to compute a function assigning to each string of names its alphabetically ordered copy.

The simplest model of computation is a finite automaton. In a sense finite automata model every conceivable device, but in a very inefficient way. A fixed finite automaton, when used on inputs of arbitrary size, can compute only very primitive functions, and is not an adequate computation model in itself. The example problem (sorting) above cannot be solved by a fixed finite automaton. We could design an automaton that solves the sorting problem for a fixed list length, but the size of the automaton would be so huge that the whole contruction would be meaningless.

Historically, the first infinite'' model of computation was the Turing machine, introduced by the English mathematician A. Turing in 1936, before the invention of programable computers. This model can be thought of as a finite automaton (control unit) equipped with an infinite storage (memory). More exactly, the memory is an infinite one-dimensional array of cells. The control unit can make arbitrary local changes to the scanned memory cell and change the scanned position by one step.

All computations that could ever be carried out on any other mathematical machine-models can also be carried out by Turing machines (this empirical fact is often called the Church Thesis''). In fact, Turing machines are in a sense the simplest machines that are universal in this sense. This fact makes them very suitable for theoretical investigations of computability questions. At the same time, they are less appropriate for the description of concrete algorithms since their specification is awkward, and they differ from real-life computers in several important aspects.

The most important weakness of the Turing machine in comparison real computers is that its memory is not accessible immediately: in order to read a distant memory cell, all intermediate cells must also be read. This is remedied by the notion of a Random Access Machine (RAM). The RAM can reach an arbitrary memory cell in a single step. It can be considered a simplified model of real world computers, along with the abstraction that it has unbounded memory and the capability to store arbitrarily large integers in each of its memory cells. The RAM can be programmed in some specified but arbitrary programming language. For the description of algorithms, it is practical to use the RAM since this is closest to real program writing. But we will see that the Turing machine and the RAM are equivalent from many points of view; what is most important, the same functions are computable on Turing machines and on the RAM.

Unfortunately, these nice properties of the RAM machine come at a cost: in order to be able to read a memory register immediately, we must address it; the address must be stored in another register. Since the number of memory registers is not bounded, the address is not bounded either, and therefore we must allow an arbitrarily large number in the register containing the address. The content of this register must itself change during the running of the program (indirect addressing). This further increases the power of the RAM.

(By not bounding the number contained in a register, we are moved again away from existing computers. If we do not watch out, abusing'' the operations with large numbers, we can program on the RAM algorithms that can be implemented on existing computers only in a much less efficient way. We'll come back to this issue when discussing time and space bounds in Chapter 3.)

Boolean (logical) circuits provide a model of computation that is not equivalent with the Turing machine. There are two ways of looking at a Boolean circuit: either as the purely logical description of bit-by-bit operations during the computation performed by any computing device, or - in a sense at the other end of the scale - a very explicit computing device that models the working of real-life micropocessors quite closely. In this first sense, a Boolean circuit is a very general model. However, a given Boolean circuit allows only a given size of input, and in this way, it can solve only a finite number of problems. It will be evident, that for a fixed input size, every function is computable by a Boolean circuit. If we restrict the size of the circuit, however, then the difference between problems Boolean circuits and Turing-machines or the RAM will not be that essential. Since the structure and functioning of Boolean circuits is the most transparent and tractable among all computation models, they play very important role in theoretical investigations (especially in the proof of lower bounds on complexity, see Chapter 13).

Boolean circuits, on the other hand, are important elements of modeling real-life hardware. If a clock is added to a Boolean circuit, we obtain a device called clocked circuit that is equivalent to a finite automaton (but with a description that can be used to build a physical realization of it). Memory registers can also be modelled by clocked circuits, and if these are added to a Boolean circuit we obtain a machine model that is very close to computers today.

One of the simplest models of an infinite machine is to connect an infinite number of identical automata into an array. This way we get a cellular automaton. Cellular automata are universal computing devices just as Turing machines; at the same time, they produce interesting phenomena such as the well-known Game of Life'' (reproduced on many screen-savers). With progress in parallel computation, as well as in biology, cellular automata become more and more important.